Temperate Deciduous Broad-leaved Forest Research Articles

The Nitrogen Cycle of a Cool-Temperate Deciduous Broad-Leaved Forest

The nitrogen (N) cycle, a major biogeochemical cycle in forest ecosystems, notably affects ecosystem multifunctionality. However, the magnitude and role of organic N and the snow season remain uncertain in this cycle. We assessed the N flux and pool data of a temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest to clarify N cycle processes. The results showed that the most important component of the N pool was the soil N pool. The N demand of the site amounted to 139.4 kg N ha−1 year−1 and was divided into tree production (83.8%) and bamboo production (16.2%). We clarified that retranslocation (37.4%), mineralization at a soil depth of 0–5 cm (15.3%), litter leachate (4.6%), throughfall (2.3%), and canopy uptake (0.5%) provided 60.1% of the N demand. In terms of soil at 0–5 cm in depth, the net mineralization rate during the snow season contributed to 30% of the annual mineralization. We concluded that the study site was not N-saturated as a result of a positive N input–output flux budget. More than half of the total N was accounted for by dissolved organic N flowing through several pathways, indicating that organic N plays a vital role in the cycle. The mineralization rate in the soil layer during the snow season is an important link in the N cycle.

Forest monitoring data of 45 plots across the Japanese archipelago during 1980–2021

AbstractLong‐term monitoring of forest tree communities is a basis for elucidating forest structure and dynamics and for evaluating ecosystem functions such as primary production. Because global climate change is changing forest ecosystems from the local to the global scale, it is essential to document long‐term monitoring data of forests to examine the temporal and geographical trends of forest changes. We report monitoring data of 45 forest plots (average area 0.69 ha; range 0.0325–6.25 ha) at 27 sites in Japan. These plots are situated within 32.38° N to 43.36° N and at elevations ranging from 8 to 2453 m above sea level. The forest plots include both old‐growth and secondary forests, and cover various forest biomes, such as warm‐temperate evergreen forests, temperate deciduous broadleaved forests, and boreal or sub‐alpine coniferous forests. In each plot, all living trees and lianas larger than a certain minimum size (typically 15 cm stem girth at breast height) were repeatedly measured and survival and recruitment of stems were recorded over 5–40 years (average 17.3 years). The data are presented in the format used by the Monitoring Sites 1000 Project in Japan (Ishihara et al. 2011, Ecological Research, 26, 1007–1008) and in the sample‐based Darwin Core format. This dataset expands existing open monitoring data for Japanese forests and thereby facilitates further meta‐analysis of forest community structures and changes in relation to climate change and other drivers. The complete data set for this abstract is available in electronic format in MetaCat in JaLTER at http://db.cger.nies.go.jp/JaLTER/metacat/metacat/ERDP-2024-03.1/jalter-en.

Accelerating effects of growing-season warming on tree seasonal activities are progressively disappearing

The phenological changes induced by climate warming have profound effects on water, energy, and carbon cycling in forest ecosystems. In addition to pre-season warming, growing-season warming may drive tree phenology by altering photosynthetic carbon uptake. It has been reported that the effect of pre-season warming on tree phenology is decreasing. However, temporal change in the effect of growing-season warming on tree phenology is not yet clear. Combining long-term ground observations and remote-sensing data, here we show that spring and autumn phenology were advanced by growing-season warming, while the accelerating effects of growing-season warming on tree phenology were progressively disappearing, manifesting as phenological events converted from being advanced to being delayed, in the temperate deciduous broadleaved forests across the Northern Hemisphere between 1983 and 2014. We further observed that the effect of growing-season warming on photosynthetic productivity showed a synchronized decline over the same period. The responses of phenology and photosynthetic productivity had a strong linear relationship with each other, and both showed significant negative correlations with the elevated temperature and vapor pressure deficit during the growing season. These findings indicate that warming-induced water stress may drive the observed decline in the responses of tree phenology to growing-season warming by decelerating photosynthetic productivity. Our results not only demonstrate a close link between photosynthetic carbon uptake and tree seasonal activities but also provide a physiological perspective of the nonlinear phenological responses to climate warming.

Improvement of transpiration estimation based on a two-leaf conductance-photosynthesis model with seasonal parameters for temperate deciduous forests.

Conductance-photosynthesis (Gs-A) models, accompanying with light use efficiency (LUE) models for calculating carbon assimilation, are widely used for estimating canopy stomatal conductance (Gs) and transpiration (Tc) under the two-leaf (TL) scheme. However, the key parameters of photosynthetic rate sensitivity (gsu and gsh) and maximum LUE (ϵmsu and ϵmsh) are typically set to temporally constant values for sunlit and shaded leaves, respectively. This may result in Tc estimation errors, as it contradicts field observations. In this study, the measured flux data from three temperate deciduous broadleaved forests (DBF) FLUXNET sites were adopted, and the key parameters of LUE and Ball-Berry models for sunlit and shaded leaves were calibrated within the entire growing season and each season, respectively. Then, the estimations of gross primary production (GPP) and Tc were compared between the two schemes of parameterization: (1) entire growing season-based fixed parameters (EGS) and (2) season-specific dynamic parameters (SEA). Our results show a cyclical variability of ϵmsu across the sites, with the highest value during the summer and the lowest during the spring. A similar pattern was found for gsu and gsh, which showed a decrease in summer and a slight increase in both spring and autumn. Furthermore, the SEA model (i.e., the dynamic parameterization) better simulated GPP, with a reduction in root mean square error (RMSE) of about 8.0 ± 1.1% and an improvement in correlation coefficient (r) of 3.7 ± 1.5%, relative to the EGS model. Meanwhile, the SEA scheme reduced Tc simulation errors in terms of RMSE by 3.7 ± 4.4%. These findings provide a greater understanding of the seasonality of plant functional traits, and help to improve simulations of seasonal carbon and water fluxes in temperate forests.

Effects of topography and stand structure of warm temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest on understory herb diversity in Donglingshan, Beijing

Effects of topography and stand structure of warm temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest on understory herb diversity in Donglingshan, Beijing

Climate and Sea Level Controls on the Spatial Heterogeneity of Mid-Holocene Vegetation in the North China Plain

Understanding the response of regional vegetation succession to climate changes and human activities in the Middle Holocene can help predict the trajectory of future vegetation changes. The North China Plain, modulated by the East Asian monsoon, is sensitive to global climate changes. However, its vegetation type and distribution during the Middle Holocene are still unclear. Based on the comprehensive analysis of 155 samples for pollen and grain sizes as well as other environmental proxies from the LD03 drill core, vegetation was reconstructed quantitatively using the REVEALS model during the period of 8.4–5.5 cal ka BP. (1) Compared to the pollen percentage, the coverage of Pinus (13.5%) decreased most significantly, while the coverage of Quercus increased significantly (51.3%). The proportion of Ephedra (11.9%) increased. A large area of temperate deciduous broad-leaved forests mainly with deciduous Quercus developed in the eastern coastal plain of Hebei from 8.0 ka BP to 5.5 ka BP. (2) During 7.4–7.1 ka BP, the proportion of broadleaved trees decreased significantly, while herbaceous plants such as Chenopodiaceae and Poaceae increased. Vegetation components such as Quercus and Pinus and Chenopodiaceae and Poaceae were sensitive to marine transgression. (3) The vegetation distribution during the Middle Holocene in the eastern and western regions of Hebei was mainly as follows: There was a large area of Pinus in the Taihang Mountains in western Hebei, whereas grasslands mainly composed of Asteraceae and Poaceae (reeds) developed in the floodplain of central Hebei. Coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forests or temperate deciduous broad-leaved forests developed in the eastern coastal plain of Hebei. The possible mechanisms of vegetation heterogeneity are sea level rise and the enhanced monsoon precipitation.

Associations between Epiphytic Bryophyte and Woody Plant Species in a Temperate Deciduous Broad-Leaved Forest

Determining whether epiphytic bryophytes have ecological preferences for woody plants remains difficult. Here, our primary aim in developing the torus-translation test is to evaluate the associations between epiphytic bryophytes and woody plants at the species, genus, or family levels in a 100 m × 100 m forest dynamics plot in a temperate, deciduous broad-leaved forest (China). We collected all the epiphytic bryophyte species on woody plants and recorded the woody plant species in the 1-ha plot in 2020. All the epiphytic bryophytes on the trees from the ground level up to 2 m were collected. We recorded 988 epiphytic bryophyte specimens belonging to 61 species in 254 woody plants. The Torus-translation test showed that 93.44% (57/61), 93.44% (57/61), and 98.36% (60/61) of the bryophyte species were significantly positively associated with the family, genus, and species of woody plants, respectively. A total of 317, 563, and 857 significant positive associations concerning the family, genus, and species of the woody plants were observed among the 61 examined bryophyte species. In addition, few significant negative associations were identified regarding the family, genus, and species of woody plants. More rare bryophyte species were positively correlated with woody plants than dominant bryophyte species. Our study demonstrates that most epiphytic bryophytes exhibit ecological habitat preferences for woody plants. These observations highlight the importance of the species composition of woody plants with respect to the maintenance of epiphytic bryophytes’ diversity. Epiphytic bryophytes’ growth preference for woody plants, especially rare bryophyte species, should be considered in the process of bryophyte diversity conservation in temperate, deciduous broad-leaved forests.

Increases in the Methane Uptake of Upland Forest Soil in China Could Significantly Contribute to Climate Change Mitigation

Upland forest soil is an important CH4 sink that plays a key role in climate change mitigation. China features large areas of various types of forest, but spatiotemporal variation in CH4 flux has not yet been clarified. Here, we analyzed variation in CH4 flux and the effects of environmental variables on the CH4 flux of forest in China using in situ observational data. Upland forest soil absorbed CH4 at a rate of 0.24 ± 0.02 g m−2 yr−1. The CH4 uptake rate (0.46 ± 0.10 g m−2 yr−1) of warm temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest was the highest. Soil alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen was the only factor significantly correlated with CH4 uptake variation among vegetation zones. A break point in CH4 uptake over the study period (from 1997 to 2020) was detected in 2015. CH4 uptake slightly decreased until 2015 and increased after 2015. The mean CH4 uptake of the period after 2015 (0.44 ± 0.07 g m−2 yr−1) was significantly higher than that before 2015 (0.20 ± 0.02 g m−2 yr−1). Atmospheric nitrogen deposition was negatively related to interannual CH4 uptake. Our findings suggest that the CH4 uptake of upland forest soil will continue to increase over the next few decades as China accelerates efforts to achieve its carbon neutrality goal, and this would result in continuous decreases in nitrogen deposition through various pathways.

[Shrub layer structure and species diversity of warm temperate deciduous broadleaved forests of the Qinling Mountains Huangguan plot in China].

Shrub is an important part of forest ecosystem. Exploring the species composition, structure and spatial distribution of shrub layer can lay an important foundation for further clarifying the mechanisms underlying species coexistence, biodiversity maintenance and community succession. In this study, species composition, spatial distribution, and species diversity of shrub layer were analyzed in 25 hm2 of Huangguan forest plot. A total of 20716 individual shrubs (with 10463 branches) were recorded in the plot, belonging to 54 species, 45 genera, 28 families. The status of dominant species in the shrub layer was not obvious, with all the importance values being less than 10. The diameter structure of shrub layer vegetation was inverted 'J' type. Shrubs showed aggregated distribution in the plot, with obvious altitude differences in spatial distribution. The diameter structure and spatial distribution of the nine shrub species with the largest abundance in the plot were consistent with the overall situation of shrub layer. With increasing altitude, the Shannon diversity index (H) and Simpson dominance index (D) did not change significantly, while the Pielou evenness index (E) decreased. Those indices decreased with the increases of the abundance of dominant species in tree layer, and E increased with the increase of the number of dominant species in sub-tree layer. The indices of H, D, E were significantly negatively correlated with soil total phosphorus (TP). The H index was significantly positively correlated with soil pH, and the E index was significantly positively correlated with soil total potassium. The shrub layer was rich in species, stable in community structure and well regenerated. The species diversity of shrub layer was mainly affected by the number of dominant species in the tree layer, soil pH, and TP.

Temporal Partitioning of Fungal Sporophores in a Temperate Deciduous Broad-Leaved Forest

The temporal partitioning hypothesis refers to the promotion of stable species’ coexistence by reducing the likelihood of competitive exclusion, such as when species are active at different months of the year. However, the studies confirming the mechanisms of species’ coexistence focus on spatial scale, and temporal partitioning hypothesis for species’ coexistence remains underexplored. Fungal sporophores that are sensitive to seasonality change are ideal candidates for studying the role of temporal differentiation hypothesis in species’ coexistence. In this study, a field survey of fungal sporocarps was conducted from May to October, and the entity and abundance of different species of fungal sporocarps in a 5-hectare forest dynamic plot in a temperate, deciduous broad-leaved forest were recorded. The results showed that the emergence of fungal sporocarps based on month was highly specialized and uneven. The torus-translation test showed that 56 species exhibited ecological habitat preferences for different months (47/100, 47%). The distribution of soil fungal sporocarps (35/75, 46.67%) based on months showed higher specialization compared with that of rotten-wood fungal sporocarps (9/22, 40.90%). The findings suggest the importance of temporal partitioning in maintaining local diversity in the fungal community.

Changes in the soil nematode community among climate zones do not keep pace with changes in plant communities

Revealing the distribution patterns of soil nematode communities among climate zones helps uncover the spatial distribution patterns of belowground biodiversity. The aims of this study were to reveal the spatial distribution patterns of the taxonomic composition, diversity and trophic structure of soil nematode communities among continuous climate zones. Investigations were conducted for five altitudinal vegetation types, i.e., subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest (SEB), subtropical evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forest (SEDB), warm temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest (WTDB), mid-temperate coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest (MTC) and cold temperate coniferous forest (CTC), on the eastern slope of Gongga Mountain from 2014 to 2017. The taxonomic compositions of the soil nematode communities in the SEDB, WTDB, MTC and CTC were similar but differed markedly from that in the SED, with patterns varying among sampling years. Abundances and diversity showed unimodal distribution patterns, with maximum values occurring in the WTDB. The abundances of the four trophic groups varied significantly among the vegetation types. Relative abundances stabilized for bacterivores and plant parasites but declined for fungivores and increased for omnivores-predators from the SEB to the CTC. The ratio of fungivores to bacterivores in the SEB was significantly higher than those in the other vegetation types, implying that the trophic structure and material cycling channels differed among forest types. The spatial distribution of the soil nematode communities was mainly influenced by pH, total K, total P and soil temperature. These findings suggested that the taxonomic composition, abundance, diversity and trophic structure of soil nematode communities vary among climate zones, but the changes in the soil nematode communities among climate zones did not keep pace with those in aboveground plant communities.

Middle Eocene Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction in the Gonjo Basin, Eastern Tibetan Plateau: Evidence From Palynological and Evaporite Records

The early uplift of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) had a profound influence on the paleoenvironment and paleoclimate. However, we still have little information about the link between the paleoclimatic changes and flora ecosystem caused by the uplift. The Eocene fluvial-lacustrine sequences in the Gonjo Basin, eastern TP, provide excellent archives of the paleoecological and paleoclimatic responses to the surface uplift of the TP. In this study, we investigated a section of the middle Eocene Ranmugou Formation (47.8–>44 Ma) and used the sporomorphs assemblages, sedimentology, and geochemistry of the evaporites to reconstruct the paleoclimate and paleovegetation. The palynological assemblages and coexistence analysis reveal that the middle Eocene ecosystem in the Gonjo Basin was dominated by warm and humid temperate deciduous broad-leaved forests. The 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.709942–0.710062) of all of the gypsum samples are higher than those of contemporaneous seawater, while the δ34S values (10.3–11.0%) are much lower, indicating a lacustrine environment. Combined with published palynological and paleoelevation data for eastern Tibetan lacustrine basins, we infer that the paleoenvironment changed from warm and humid deciduous broad-leaved forests during 47.8–>44 Ma, to cool and arid temperate forest during 44–40 Ma in the Gonjo Basin, and to arid and cool steppe-desert vegetation in the late Eocene Nangqian Basin. The changes in the paleoclimate and vegetation were primarily driven by the surface uplift of the Central Watershed Mountain, the high topography of which blocked the moisture from the Asian Eocene monsoon.

The first complete chloroplast genome of Tetradium daniellii (Benn.) T. G. Hartley

Tetradium daniellii (Benn.) T. G. Hartley is an important medicinal, ornamental, and timber tree species and belongs to genus Tetradium in family of Rutaceae. It is widely distributed in warm temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest areas in northern China, Korean Peninsula and Japan. In this study, we sequenced its sample and determined complete chloroplast genome. The CP genome of T. daniellii has a circle structure with the length 158,446 bp, includes a small single copy region (17, 972 bp), a large single copy (86, 478 bp) and two inverted repeats (26,998 bp). There were 131 genes, which included 86 protein-coding genes, 8 rRNA and 37 tRNA, and overall GC content covered by 38.3%. The gene trnK-UUU, rps16, trnG-UCC, atpF, rpoC1, trnL-UAA, trnV-UAC, petB, petD, rpl16, rpl2, ndhB, trnI-GAU, trnA-UGC and ndhA contained an intron; gene clpP, ycf3 contained 2 introns. The phylogenetic result showed that T. daniellii had the closest relationship with Tetradium ruticarpum (NC_052830).

Patterns of species diversity and its determinants in a temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest

Biodiversity conservation has long been a subject of extreme interest to community ecologists, with a particular focus on exploring the underlying causes of species diversity based on niche and neutral theories. This study aims to identify the potential determinants of species diversity in a deciduous broad-leaved forest in the transitional region from subtropical to temperate climate in China. We collected woody plant data and environmental variables in a fully mapped 25-ha permanent forest plot, partitioned the beta-diversity into local contributions (LCBD) and species contributions (SCBD), and then applied multivariate linear regression analysis to test the effects of biotic and abiotic factors on alpha-diversity, LCBD, and SCBD. We used variation partitioning in combination with environmental variables and spatial distance to determine the contribution of environment-related variations versus spatial variations. Our results showed that the indices of alpha-diversity (i.e., species abundance and richness) were positively correlated with soil available phosphorus (P) and negatively with slope. For the beta-diversity, environment and space together explained nearly half of the variations in community composition. Approximately 60% of the variation of LCBD in the understory layer, 40% in the substory layer, and 29% in the canopy layer were jointly explained by topographic, soil and biological variables, with biotic factors playing a dominant role in determining the beta-diversity. Species abundance accounted for a large proportion of the variations in SCBD in each vertical stratum, and niche position (NP) was the ecological trait that significantly affected the variations in SCBD in the substory and canopy layers. Our findings help to gain better understanding on how species diversity in forest ecosystem responds to environmental conditions and how it is influenced by biotic factors and ecological traits of species.

[Species composition and community structure of warm temperate deciduous broadleaved forests in Huangguan of Qinling Mountains, China].

The Qinling Mountain is a natural boundary between warm temperate zone and subtropical zone. While the China Forest Biodiversity Monitoring Network (CForBio) have basically covered most of the climate regions in China, few plots were located in the climate transition zone. Following the field protocol of CForBio and the Center for Tropical Forest Science (CTFS), a 25 hm2(500 m×500 m) forest plot was established in Huangguan Nature Reserve in Shaanxi Province, China, in 2019. In this study, we analyzed species composition, flora characteristics, diameter class structure, and spatial distribution patterns of dominant tree species based on the data of all woody species with a diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥1 cm. The results showed that there were 75137 woody individuals with DBH ≥1 cm in the plot (95679 when including branching individuals), belonging to 121 species, 83 genera and 44 families. The flora type at the genera level was mainly temperate, accounting for 71.1% of the total genera, and mixed with some tropical components. The dominant species in the community were obvious, with the number of individuals in the top 5 species exceeding 40% of the total number of individuals, the number of individuals in the top 50 species accounting for 95% of the total number of individuals, and the number of individuals in the remaining 61 species being less than 5% of the total. The diameter distribution of all woody indivi-duals in the plot was inverted 'J' type. Spatial distribution patterns varied across the four most abundant species with importance value >5. The degree of aggregation within species decreased with the increases of scales, while the spatial distribution of different species was affected by environmental heterogeneity. Warm-temperate deciduous broadleaved forest in Qinling Mountains had abundant species, stable community structure and good regeneration, reflecting the typical characteristics of the transition from warm temperate zone to subtropical zone. Environmental heterogeneity might be an important factor affecting the spatial distribution of tree species in the plot.

Vertical differentiation of soil organic carbon in mature natural forests in China.

We analyzed the effects of meteorological factors and soil properties on vertical variation of SOC, based on soil organic carbon (SOC) density in different soil layers (0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-50, and 50-100 cm) from 131 mature natural forests in different climate zones in China. The results showed that SOC density decreased with increasing soil depth (0-30 cm) in temperate coniferous, temperate deciduous broadleaved, subtropical deciduous broadleaved and subtropical evergreen broadleaved forests. There were significant regional variations of SOC density in 0-100 cm soil layer. SOC density of 0-100 cm soil layer in temperate coniferous forests was higher than temperate deciduous broadleaved forests, and was higher in subtropical evergreen broadleaved forests than subtropical deciduous broadleaved forests. SOC density was significantly positively correlated with soil clay content, mean annual precipitation, and aboveground net primary production, and significantly negatively correlated with soil pH and mean annual temperature. Mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature influenced input and output of SOC, while soil pH and clay content affected SOC accumulation. Therefore, protecting mature natural coniferous and evergreen broadleaved forests would benefit forest carbon sequestration in China.

Sequential Changes in Understory Vegetation Community for 15 Years in the Long-Term Ecological Research Site in Central Temperate Broad-leaved Deciduous Forest of Korea

Sequential Changes in Understory Vegetation Community for 15 Years in the Long-Term Ecological Research Site in Central Temperate Broad-leaved Deciduous Forest of Korea

Biotic and climatic controls on the interannual variation in canopy litterfall of a deciduous broad-leaved forest

Canopy litterfall is an important component of net primary productivity (NPP) in forests, but the climatic and biotic controls on its interannual fluctuation remain poorly understood. In this study, we quantified the interannual variation in and the influencing factors of the canopy litterfall with 45 litter traps in nine plots for 12 years (2008 − 2019) in a temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest in Northeast China. The coefficients of interannual variation in the total (7.3%) and leaf (5.6%) litterfall were substantially lower than those in the basal area (BA) increment (21.0%) and gross primary productivity (10.2%). Climatic (i.e., air temperature, thermal time, precipitation, and radiation) and biotic (i.e., BA and species richness) factors jointly controlled the annual production of litterfall for individual plots and species. Significant climate legacy effects were detected in all components of the litterfall, with the strongest in woody tissue component that contributed to 58.9% of the total litterfall variability. The most important factor driving the variability of the total litterfall and its non-leaf components was climate legacy effect (67.2% to 86.6%), while those for the leaf litterfall were BA (40.4%) and species richness (38.3%). We conclude that high species richness of the deciduous forest increases the temporal stability of canopy productivity, and leaf productivity is much more stable than wood productivity as indicated by BA increament. These findings provide insight into spatiotemporal dynamics in the litterfall and canopy NPP in temperate deciduous forests.

Sustainable and cost-effective vegetation restoration framework under climate change

Although potential natural vegetation (PNV) information can be used as references in revegetation projects, previous studies have largely ignored the sustainability and cost-effectiveness of revegetation in light of climate change and funding requirements. To address these issues, this study proposes a sustainable and cost-effective vegetation restoration framework based on the growing potential index (GPI, i.e., normalized gross primary productivity) of the PNV type, mitigating adverse effects of climate change. The framework is simulated with a dynamic vegetation model using China’s Loess Plateau (LP) as a case study. The results show that: (1) Among the PNV types, temperate steppe occupied 73.2% of the LP, followed by temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest with 22.3% and temperate evergreen coniferous forest with 3.9%. Several conversions occurred among the PNV types from current to future periods, implying that future climate change will strongly disturb PNV patterns. (2) The GPI of PNV type during 2001–2020 displayed distinct spatial heterogeneity within its pattern; although the GPI of PNV type during 2081–2100 had similar spatial variation to GPI during 2001–2020, spatial statistic information of GPI during 2001–2020 and 2081–2100 showed large differences, suggesting that the growth status of PNV type will be largely affected by future climate change. (3) To mitigate the effects of climate change on vegetation restoration, a PNV pattern undisturbed by climate change from 2021 to 2100 was identified, accounting for 77.8–68.76%, which can be considered as a reference to ensure sustainability. The GPI of the undisturbed PNV types showed a progressive decrease from southeast to northwest and from low to high altitudes. Our results can be used to plan sustainable and cost-effective revegetation projects especially for areas with high growing potential for undisturbed PNV types and may provide insights into other ecological restoration projects globally.

Distribution of Woody Plant Species Among Different Disturbance Regimes of Forests in a Temperate Deciduous Broad-Leaved Forest

Forests in different disturbance regimes provide diverse microhabitats for species growth. However, whether the species distribution of wood plant is random or follows ecological specialization among forests in different disturbance regimes remains to be elucidated. In this study, four 1 hm2 (100 m × 100 m) forest dynamic monitoring plots in different disturbance regimes of forests were randomly selected in a temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest. We examined the specificity of woody plants to forests through network analysis. Torus-translation test was used to analyze the species distribution preference of woody plants to forests in different disturbance regimes. The specialization index of woody plants was 0.3126, and that of shrubs (51.01%) was higher than that of trees (25.16%). Moreover, 66.67% (38/57) of woody plants were associated with different forests. More shrub species (70.00%) had specific preferences than tree species (45.95%) with respect to forests in different disturbance regimes. Our findings suggest that the distribution of woody plants among forests with different disturbance regimes is not random but is specialized. Different woody plants show different community preferences in different disturbance regimes of forests. Shrubs show higher specialization than trees in different disturbance regimes of forests.